Hotel Industry Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Hotel Industry - Research Proposal Example An Organizational structure defines how job tasks are formally divided, grouped and coordinated. The main elements to consider while designing an organizational structure are Work Specialization, departmentalization, chain of command, span of control, centralization and decentralization and formalization. The most common Organizational designs found in use are The simple structure is characterized by a low degree of departmentalization, wide spans of control, authority centralized in a single person, and little formalization. The strength of the simple structure lies in its simplicity. It's fast, flexible and inexpensive to maintain and accountability is clear. One major weakness is that it is difficult to maintain in anything other than a small organization. The decision making becomes slow as the organization grows in size because of its low formalization and high centralization. A bureaucracy is characterized by highly routine operating tasks achieved through specialization, much formalized rules and regulations, tasks that are grouped into functional departments, centralized authority, narrow spans of control, and decision making that follows the chain of command. The primary strength of bureaucracy lies in its ability to perform standardized activities in a highly efficient manner. One of the major weakness of this structure is that it causes departmental conflicts and highly inflexible always following the rules. There is no room for modification The Matrix structure is characterized by dual lines of authority and combines product and functional departmentalization. IBM adopts a modified version of the matrix structure in its overall operations. The strength of this structure lies in its ability to facilitate coordination and efficient allocation of specialists. The major disadvantage lies in the confusion it creates, its prosperity to foster power struggles, and the stress it places on individuals. The Team structure uses teams as the central device to coordinate work activities. Companies like DaimlerChrysler, Saturn, Motorola and Xerox have made extensive use of self managed teams to improve productivity at the operational level. In smaller companies, the team structure can define the entire organization. For instance, Imedia, a 30 person marketing firm in New Jersey is completely organized around teams. This structure is highly unsuitable for large companies. A Virtual organization is a small core organization that out sources major business functions. Ancle Hsu and David Ji run a virtual organization. Their firm, California based Apex Digital, is one of the world's largest producers of DVD Players, yet the company neither owns a factory nor employs an engineer. They contract everything out to firms in China. This is suitable for small and large organizations. The major advantage is the flexibility and the disadvantage is lack of managerial control in key aspects of business. The Boundaryless organization is an organization

Political Science Questions and Answers Assignment

Political Science Questions and Answers - Assignment Example Using the concepts of competition and socialization to anchor your analysis, explain what Waltz means when he writes that a structure â€Å"may designate a compensating device that works to produce a uniformity of outcomes despite the variety of inputs.† The implication by Waltz is that structure within the global system always focuses on maintaining their outcomes within constricted margins no matter the inputs to them. This is possible due to socialization factors and competition. Socialization results from differences in societies that arise from informal and impulsive techniques applied in the definition of conduct norms. Consequently, the resulting norms control the group members and this discharges diversity and heartens homogeneity. Conversely, competition defines organization where the outcomes facilitate the selection of behavior, where the least successful conducts leave the global system and the triumphant institutes set the pace imitated by others. Q.3. what are th e core assumptions of realism, according to Gilpin? How and WHY do Mearshimer’s assumptions differ? Guzzini reveals Gilpin’s five assumptions: the global system is stable provided no nations attempt changing it; states challenge the system where the benefits arising outdo the expenses incurred; nations seek to system change through economic, politica, and territorial growth up to the point of equilibrium or excess on marginal costs of continued change compared to marginal benefits; the attainment of equilibrium between benefits and costs resulting from additional change and growth causes faster increment in econiomic cost to sustain the status compared to the financial ability to support th status; and failure to resolve unequity causes system changes settles for a novel equity reflection .While Gilpin’s assumptions focus on the system systematic, and interaction changes within the global system, Mearshimer’s assumptions focus on factors contributing to the endless competition for security amongst nations. Additionally, Mearsheimer argues that given that power ful states operate anarchic environment, they feat and distrust each other leaving each to worry about the objectives of the other on security. Q4. Compare how Lebow and Waltz explain the nature of order and its relevance to the behavior of states on the world stage

The Significance and Role of the Theme of Hospitality Essay Example for Free

The Significance and Role of the Theme of Hospitality Essay In Ancient Greece, when the world was still young and vastly unexplored, people relied on good faith in welcoming strangers in their lands hoping that the favor shall also be repaid in kind in the future when they too shall travel. There were poor means of communication between tribes, cities or small communities separated by a wide expanse of empty land and the open sea. Anyone who decides to set out on an epic voyage to uncharted territories can only trust the unspoken tradition of hospitality among people scattered in unknown places. One can not depend solely on personal renown to be allowed access in strange lands. Similarly, while the fame and reputation of Odysseus did precede him throughout the lands, it was not so much because of his prominence that helped him through his voyage. Rather it was due to the practice of unconditional altruism which played an important role in Odysseus’s travels. It is the principle of doing to others what one wishes that others do in return. It is the unspoken bond of humanity among individuals who were then too few in the world and had each other to ask for assistance as brothers and comrades in the nascent world The theme of travel and wandering prevails in the Homer’s Epic, the Odyssey. After the fall of Troy, Odysseus with his small army set out to sail for home. However, he was destined to suffer years of torment and agony because Poseidon, among a number of other gods, wanted to prevent him from ever succeeding while the rest of the gods in Mount Olympus pitied him and wanted him to succeed. Just like the harsh and uninviting ocean storms, Odysseus’ fate was tossed and turned by the whims of these gods. He was subjected to numerous trials and tests during his protracted journey home until he finally reached Ithaca and proved to be seaworthy, so to speak, in all respects (Aylen, 1964). Yet travel only underscores the salient theme of hospitality during the ancient era. Travel was prevalent during that time of exploration and the growth of Western civilization. People traveled for commerce and trade including the exchange of goods and ideas. Trade routes were established specifically to satisfy a society’s needs to go beyond their borders and establish different friendly relations with other states (Aylen, 1964). Trade routes were also developed to make sure that voyage to and fro is very convenient, safe and fast. Along trade routes and other important nautical highways were small tribes peppered along the shorelines. One or two may be hostile and unaccommodating to seafarers but even if most of them are highly suspicious of strangers, they still treated them with kindness even extravagance (1964). To everybody’s minds, it is most likely that people will continue to pass by routes and highways of exchange and its better to treat them well as opposed to driving them away and creating feud than friendship. A visitor today may be one’s host in the future. Likewise, a stranger that passes now might become a good friend eventually. Hospitality, the ready and willing cordial welcome of guests from strange lands, made voyage in the ancient world possible and better. The desire for adventure, to travel and to discover new places will have been a nightmare if people did not practice amicable attitudes to strangers. The benefits of being hospitable to seafarers outweigh the risks of treating strangers like friends into one’s home. Put differently, the risk in turning away visitors is more costly resource-wise than providing feasts and unlimited assistance to whoever is need of help (Aylen, 1964). It is true that the host, in order to show goodwill, have to go the distance of putting up expensive festive celebrations or sacrifice the best of what little resource he may have in his storehouse, but these things are necessary costs before reaping the benefits of being kind to a stranger who might later turn out to be a king or some rich merchant. Hospitality, in other words, is an investment in the future (1964). Ties of blood and friendship are created or destroyed by the practice of this tradition. Odysseus’ adventures and other incidental stories in Homer’s Odyssey evince the importance of hospitality in the sparsely populated ancient world. The different ways in which he and his men were welcomed in strange lands spelled either good tidings or disaster for them as the guests of honor and for the hosts. The mythical undertones that gird the motives of the hosts to give assistance in an ostentatious fashion merely attribute the sense of the divine in an otherwise natural and practical way to create stronger and long-lasting friendships. Book III of the epic, where Athena goaded Nestor to assist Telemachus in his business, was an adornment. It supports the traditional claim that hospitality was completely sanctioned by the gods. Anyone who fails or transgresses this tradition had to answer to the gods. In the same vein, Nestor provided food, shelter and a decent means of transportation for Telemachus, who was out in an important errand, upon the advice of the mentor god (Kitto, 1990). The fact that Nestor gave without question is instructive on the point that any material gifts to the hosts are just as good as altar sacrifices to the gods. In other words, Nestor showed his best form of hospitality in consideration of accumulating favors from the gods, if not militate the possibility of incurring the wrath of the gods. Being hospitable had a two-pronged effect, one that redounds positively to the host as a friend to the guest and the host as a favored individual in the eyes of the gods (Kitto, 1990). Subsequently in Book IV, Homer reveals subtly another good reason why hospitality was an important element in the epic. At first, upon the arrival of Telemachus and Nestor’s son, a messenger reported to Menelaus that â€Å"there are two strangers here, two men who look as if they are descended from great Zeus† and asked politely, â€Å"so tell me if we should, on their behalf, take their fast horses out of harness, or send them off to find some other host wholl welcome them as friends† (Book IV, Lines 31-40). The herald was both being courteous and cautious at the same time. He apprises to Menelaus that visitors, who looked like Greeks, were at their doorsteps and awaited the king’s instructions whether or not to accept them as guests or send them off to another place where they shall also be welcomed. The fact that the herald seemed a bit hesitant to allow the visitors in does not lessen the sense of hospitality in the epic. If anything, the question was addressed to the king taking into account the fact that they were presently engaged in other festivities. At any rate, Menelaus, hurriedly dispatched the notion and with playful chiding, told the messenger to tarry no longer in calling Telemachus and his companion and letting them in, saying: â€Å"Before today, Eteoneus, son of Boethous, you havent been a fool. But now you talk just like a silly child. For both of us often feasted on the hospitality of other men before we got back here, hoping that Zeus would give us some relief from later suffering (emphasis supplied). So unhitch those horses the strangers brought, and bring the men inside, so they may dine† (Book IV Lines 42-50). The lines in italics bespeak Menelaus anxious anticipation to finally have the opportunity to repay the favors he had been getting ever since he left for Troy. Indeed, he has enjoyed the hospitality of strangers in different lands and now is the best time to return the favor to another stranger. It is in the hope of perpetuating the cycle of hospitality as a tradition which turns full circle in his acceptance of two strangers and shall be repeated in the future when Menelaus himself shall travel again. Also, it bears stressing that Menelaus had no idea who these strangers were before welcoming them in with such gusto. It was only when the strangers had entered and set properly before the tables of festivity before Menelaus started to asked who they were and what brings them to his place right after they shall have dine with him. To wit: â€Å"enjoy our food and once youve had your meal, well ask you who you are. For in you two your parents breeding has not been destroyed—since you are from a royal human stock, from god-nurtured kings who wield a scepter [†¦] Worthless men could not father men like you† (Book IV, lines 61-67). More importantly, when Menelaus invoked Zeus in kind and in favor to justify the need to welcome the strangers in, the epic reveals yet another layer in the theme of hospitality (Kitto, 1990). Zeus was actually in fact the god of travelers and of hospitality (1990). He favors those who treat visitors well and guests who behave themselves properly while being accommodated (1990). This reciprocity of kindness and courteousness is embodied in the traditional concept of the Xenia, where both the host and the guest follow certain predetermined divine rules in terms of hospitality. The host must provide necessary assistance to his guests and treat him as a part of the household, whilst the guest must not desecrate the honor granted to him. The host must not ask impertinent questions or if he must, out of polite curiosity, it can only be done after the guest has fully settled himself in and satisfied his needs. When the time comes for the guest to depart, the host shall, or regularly will, give a parting gift to bid the guest farewell and god-speed in his journey. Xenia is a Greek ancient custom of treating strangers as friends in the household. The practice of which has been so pervasive that it has partaken the nature of a ritual that still bears persuasive force even among modern societies in the Western world (1990). Otherwise, a person who does not observe the rite of the xenia or practically of hospitality, the consequences are dire either with respect to the gods’ fury or men’s retribution (1990). On another note, a perusal of Menelaus’ and his subjects’ attitude towards their guests, who had an air of royalty and superiority, will uncover another dimension of the concept of hospitality. Curiously enough, both the messenger and Menelaus noticed a semblance between them and the two strangers. They both automatically assumed that Telemachus and his companion were of divine and royal origin. As such, they were moved to treat them to which their station in life properly deserves. A whole feast befitting a king was given in honor of Telemachus. In addition, arguing that Telemachus was not a king, his Greek appearance perhaps inspired a sense of kinship with Menelaus being both Greeks. Indeed, if men had a tendency to behave altruistically towards individuals who physically resembled them, they might indirectly be doing their own kind a huge favor by being hospitable to Greek strangers. Menelaus, like other Greeks, had a kin-like tendency to identify with strangers who closely resemble oneself physically. This kind of natural response would lead to the providential growth of one’s race. At a time when Greeks moved around little or heavily throughout the region, chances are high that any random individual that pays a visit may be close kin to the host, not just in terms of ties of friendship but even through blood-lines. Thus, being nice to any stranger who look similar or appears to share the same qualities as one may possess, could have a positive survival value in the long run. In this sense, Homer seems to imply that being hospitable to strangers is more than just showing good manners and courtesy. In a time when the Greeks were holding off invaders from their lands it is but wise to know your allies and treat them well, for in the off chance that the nation-states have to unite in battle against foreign belligerent armies, the person you welcome today might be the very person fighting with and for you in war. Menelaus, being a warmonger himself, knows this too well and at the sight of a fellow Greek in need of help, he had no qualms in giving him what he, as a member of a race, rightly deserves. Homer continues to wax different dimensions of hospitality in Books V-VIII which stresses the importance of Xenia and the concept of hospitality in the survival of Odysseus in his journey. At around this time, Odysseus has recently departed the place of Calypso. He set out to sail in a raft but was constantly being harassed by Poseidon who determined to kill him. Odysseus had been washed over to alien shores but was lucky enough to find people willing to give him some assistance. However, Homer casts a shadow of doubt as to the genuine motives of the people who came to the aid of Odysseus. Upon Odysseus’ unplanned arrival at the land of the Phaeacians, he was met with several people who were wondering who he was. There is an air of foreboding and caution since in all appearances and circumstances Odysseus was a total stranger. Athena while disguised as stranger admonished Odysseus that: â€Å"The people here are not fond of strangers—they dont extend a friendly welcome to those from other lands, but put their trust in their swift ships to carry them across vast gulfs of the sea† (Book VII, lines 40-45). Nonetheless, after Odysseus, who was then covered in mist which later dispersed, prostrated himself before the attendants inside the palace, he was welcomed to dine and sleep in the palace if only because they were wary of strangers but had a heart for those who pay homage properly viz. by being pious suppliants. The attendants of the palace were not as welcoming as the Greeks. Yet they gave him something to drink, clothe himself and sleep on until Alcinous the king would pass wise judgment on the best way to treat Odysseus. Thereafter, king Alcinous bid the Phaeacians to extend a little warmth of kindness to Odysseus before he sets out for his home again with a sacrifice to be made to Zeus. The king made it clear that in no way was Odysseus to be ill-treated or harm precisely because for such a long time the gods have yet to show their true form and the stranger before them might be one of the gods. Odysseus was quick to reply that he was an ordinary man stranded and lost at sea. The wise and timely words of Odysseus gained the approval of everyone in the majestic palace. King Alocinous even offered his daughter in marriage so then their line would continue to produce wise men like him. At this point, Odysseus, with his cunning and resourcefulness, had finally earned not only the respect of the Phaeacians but his keep during his stay at the palace (Book VII, Lines 380-400). Later in Book VIII, the brand of hospitality shown by the Phaeacians is beginning to look more obvious. Athena knows well that the Phaeacians were not good with strangers and as such, in order to compel respect and awe among them, Athena â€Å"poured an amazing poise on him [Odysseus], across his shoulders and his head and made him look taller and more powerful, so the Phaeacians would welcome him, and he would win from them respect and awe (Book VIII, Lines 18-24). Indeed, as it were, people are moved to show generosity and courtesy in varying levels of motivation. It could be purely out of the kindness of one’s heart, the desire to be repaid in turn in the future, to help a kinsman, or it could well probably be shown out of respect, fear and awe. As in the case of Odysseus’ stay with the Phaeacians, he had nothing else but his wisdom and the guidance of Athena to merit the approving welcome of his hosts. Although the Phaeacians were not famous for being so accommodating to strangers, they still observed the rituals of hospitality and Xenia by offering their guest a means to get back home—fifty handpicked men of the finest caliber and a ship to sail with as well. On the part of the Odysseus as the guest of honor, when provoked into an experiment of skill and strength, did show some remarkable feats but spurned suggestions of having to wrestle with his host lest his fortunes may turn (Book VIII, 40). Thus far, Homer has shown how people of the ancient world have embraced and perceived hospitality as a part of their customs and way of life. Hospitality was presented as a tool to earn favors and forge relationships among men, and as an unconditional gift to which the reward is the sense of satisfaction from being able to lend a hand to those in need. However, hospitality may lend itself to abuse what with the fact that people seem to be kind and generous all the time. Such abuse of hospitality is not without a fitting punishment at the instance that a guest desecrates the honor of the host. Book IX of the epic, narrates Odysseus’ experience with the Cyclops. He recounts that when he left to check their ship his men wantonly killed a number of sheep in the midst and casually ate what they could grab their hands on. Odysseus had a share in the loot as well and even went inside the cave which was the house of the terrible Cyclops. But when the master of the house arrived, in trembling and fear-inspiring fashion, none of the supplications of Odysseus neither his wise and calculated words had an effect to the Cyclops (Book IX, Lines 331-339). The Cyclops was angry because uninvited strangers ate some of his prized sheep and even slept on his abode. The Cyclops bellows that he was not afraid of Zeus. Thus, he had no business whatsoever neither had he any divine obligation to show kindness to the trespassers. He can do whatever he wanted with the strangers who were presently trapped inside the cave (Book IX, Lines 300-310). In the same breath, Homer attributed the inhospitality with the fact that Odysseus and his men failed to pay the proper respects to their host. They went on pillaging resources without asking for permission. The Cyclops would have been more lenient had they observed the rites as visitors. At any rate, the Cyclops is a being beyond the control of established rules and laws of men. This was a creature who did not answer to the gods. It was an independent and free-thinking uncivilized brute that could do as he please without fear of incurring the wrath of the gods. Furthermore, the Cyclops did not fit the ideal host precisely because he had nothing to gain from feeding, clothing and accepting into his home strangers who come his way. At the least, strangers who pass by are nothing but piecemeal desserts to him. The Cyclops was only interested in entertainment and food, and cared little about the problems of stranded seafarers. Then again, as a host who had performed poorly in attending to his visitors, the Cyclops suffered his just punishment. Odysseus and his men crafted a scheme to escape and in the process gorged the only eye of the Cyclops, depriving him totally of the sense of sight. What worse punishment can there be to a Cyclops than to take from him his one eye for being inhospitable? The lack of hospitality in Book IX of the epic and in other parts signifies the untamed and wild aspects of the ancient world. It is true that there are many who are willing and able to render aid to strangers with such generosity and kindness. Yet it is equally true that there are some who are not so keen in helping out people in need. The ancient world has a collection of creatures and beings of this sort. Driven by selfishness and self-serving interest, they see little benefits in spending resources, time and energy to outsiders. Not even the divine and universal laws of gods and men’s customs and traditions have the power to compel them to do the right thing. Such creatures are uncivilized and nothing can be expected from them but hostility and danger. Wise words can not trick them to do something against their brutish nature. As independent creatures, they rely on themselves for support and livelihood. Anyone who intrudes into their domain is readily met with a poor or lack of kind treatment.

Background Of Toyota Motor Company Limited Management Essay

Background Of Toyota Motor Company Limited Management Essay Since it was founded in 1937, Toyota Motor Company has contributed to the development of the automobile industry and society by providing people with quality vehicles. TMC manufactures automobiles in 25 countries and regions all over the world. Today, its vehicles are sold in more 160 nations worldwide under the brand names of Toyota, Lexus, Daihatsu, and Hino, manufacturing small cars to luxury sedans, full-sized pickup trucks, and crossover vehicles. This report is mainly focusing on the human resource management system of Toyota Motor. The major issues like technological issues of HRMS, change management and innovation to management style of Toyota Motor Company in detail. It also depicts the relation between the human resource management system and among these key issues in the context of Toyota motor company. Technological changes in HRMS of Toyota include the recruitment and selection process of Toyota and different techniques how to motivate and encourage employees towards the objectives and goals of organization. In change management an example of change management has been explain about the Toyota Motor and different styles of management which are used in Toyota are also describe in detail and some techniques which Toyotas management is using to control and directing its employees. Some recommendations are given at the end of the report on those areas where Toyota needs some improvements. Background of Toyota Motor Company Limited Toyota Motor Co. Ltd. (TMC) was first established in 1937 as a separated company from Toyoda Automobile Loomworks, the leading manufacturing of weaving machinery. The Toyota Automobile Loomworks was then headed by Sakichi Toyoda, the king of investors (Schewe, Charles and Hiam, Alexander, 1998). The giant automaker faced its one and only strike in 1950. This event, however, supplied Toyota an important philosophy, giving it the labour and management system which helped Toyota to gain mutual growth and success in both domestic and overseas markets. Today, this philosophy is very important to the structure of Toyota. Toyotas production system improved in the late 1950s, establishing the Toyota Production System. This system became the major factor in the reduction of inventories and defect in the plants of Toyota and its suppliers. It also underpinned all of Toyotas operations across the world. It launched its first small cars in 1947. The operation outside Japan started in 1959 in Brazil and continued with growing network of foreign plants. Toyota celebrated its 60th anniversary in August 1997. It believes that its local production can provide customers with the productions they need, giving it the stable and long-term growth. It also has a global network of design and research and development facilities, consisting Japan, North America, and Europe markets (Schewe, Charles and Hiam, Alexander, 1998). Toyota is at rank 8 in fortune global 500 2007 companies of the world Toyota Motor Company is committed to the principle of Equal Opportunities by providing fair and equitable treatment to all individuals and applicants. Toyota seeks to abide by the intent as well as the letter of appropriate legislation in these matters and Toyota management team is committed to the promotion of and adherence to the Equal Opportunities Policy. . Why Toyota Motor need Innovation and Change? Any organization needs change for some reason. It may be for its survival if business is not doing well or may be business wants to attain competitive advantage. Sometimes this change is required due to the external pressure like mergers or change in any legislation. Overall change is for the benefit of the business and their employees. There are so many reasons for the Toyota for the innovation and change which are: Reduced Sales Customer Turnover Employee Turnover Loan Repayment Investments in a new project Extension of Organization i.e. overseas business Need for Technology Core Competence Customer Value Creation Basic Issues to Toyota Motor Company In the past, Toyota was not giving much attention to its Human Resource management system but now it is known that success of the Toyota is more dependant on its employees rather than on any thing else. Toyota Motor also believes its employees are assets for them and sometimes they give more attention to the employees than customers. They believe on the philosophy that organization with more satisfied employees having more satisfied customers. So now, It is necessary for the Toyota to choose the right employee for the right job. Because one wrong decision regarding selection of the employee will harm Toyota till that employee will work on that job. The three most vital issues related to HRMS of Toyota includes Technological Changes in HRMS of Toyota Innovation to Management Styles of the Toyota HRMS Change Management perspective of Toyota HRMS Technological Changes in HRMS of Toyota In this competitive environment of global business, it was very difficult for Toyota Motor Company to remain always competitive and managed profitable relationship with the customers. Toyota Motor is the 3rd best automobile corporation of the world and it always needs innovation (Ronald J. Burke, Cary L. Cooper, 2006). Innovation can be in any form or in any field e.g. it can be in the design, production processes, quality, product, managing human resource effectively etc. in this report main focus will be on the human resource management system of the Toyota. The solution of technological changes in HRMS of Toyota includes: Innovation in recruitment and selection process How Can Toyota maintains employees satisfaction and low employees turnover Innovation in recruitment and selection process of Toyota With the passage of time, so many technological changes have also come into the recruitment and selection process of the Toyota. Now for the selection of employees Toyota gives special attention. Because finding right employee for the any position is necessary for the Toyota Motors (R. L. Compton, Alan R. Nankervis, 2008). The first step in the process of acquiring the human resource for the Toyota is to specify the kind of work which will be done by the employees. Job analysis and job design are the process used to determine this Job Analysis Job Design Training of Employees Job Analysis Job Analysis means gathering the pertinent information regarding the nature of the specific job. It is determining the tasks that comprise the job which includes skills, qualification, abilities and experience of the employees (Ronald J. Burke, Cary L. Cooper, 2006). Now job analysis is must for every job in Toyota Motor. Job analysis serves as foundation of the every human resource functions. Products of job Analysis Job description: means written synopsis of nature of the job. Job specification: means description of competencies, educational, and experience qualification the incumbent must possess to perform the job. Job Analysis Method Different methods are used by the Toyota for the job analysis which are: Observation (Motion and time study, Work Sampling) Interview Questionnaires Functional job Analysis Job Design Job Design is the process of structuring work and designing work for the specific job in Toyota. Job design gives the answers to basic questions of how the job is performed, who is to perform. Both job analysis and job design are linked with each other. Two dimensions of job design include job scope and job depth (Ronald J. Burke, Cary L. Cooper, 2006). Job scope refers to the number and variety of tasks performed by the jobholder in the Toyota Motor Company. In Toyotas working environment most jobs have high job scope. In a job with less scope, jobholder has to performed few tasks. Low job scope can be the reason for dissatisfaction of the particularly job. Job depth refers to the freedom of the job holders to plan and organize their own work. Toyotas management gives freedom to its employees up to his control or limit and works at your own pace and communicates according to your need (R. L. Compton, Alan R. Nankervis, 2008) Training of the employees After selecting the employees, Toyota arranged training activities for its employees. To get this training is compulsory in Toyota. This training is very helpful for the employees and it takes less time to learn the employees lots of things than learning on job from own experience. Toyota Motor used different methods for the training of its employees like some lectures and training classes are arranged for them or give them on job training with the senior members who are having vast experience and can help the employees in its training. Job rotation is another term which is used for learning and developing new skills of the employees. How Toyota can maintain employees satisfaction and low employees turnover In managing human resource of the Toyota effectively the first step is to select the right employee for the right position. For this right selection of employees, it is necessary for Toyota to use new innovative techniques for selection of employees, compensating and rewarding to employees. Because job satisfaction is the most important variable and Toyotas success is dependant on its employees. So, Toyota always follows the innovative techniques for managing its human resource. Satisfied and committed employees are asset for the Toyota. It has seen organization with more satisfied employees perform better than other whose are not satisfied. So, Toyotas success or failure also depends on its employees satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Organization whose employees are dissatisfied with their jobs cost too much to the organization. Mostly they will be absent from the work or might quarrel with the co-workers .These employees do not take interest in their job which affects the overall pr oductivity of the organization and ultimately organization will suffer. There are so many reasons for their dissatisfaction; it can be the environmental conditions in which they work, Nature of the work like repetition etc. There are different techniques which are used to make employee satisfied and ultimately low employees turnover which are: HR Development Career Development Motivation HR DEVELOPMENT Skills and knowledge of staff is crucial for Toyotas innovation process. Most of the innovation ideas are come through the employees of the Toyota Motor. But the time is changing so quickly that every technology and change becomes obsolete in no time. It is important for the Toyota that its employees remain up-to-date with the knowledge and changes to compete in the industry Career Development It is the duty of the Toyotas management to provide the growth opportunities to its employees. Career development is an ongoing process that focusing on the developing and enriching the organizations human resource in the light of both employee and organization need. It is also the responsibility of the Toyotas employee himself to think about his career development. It is something which one can not do for others. It has to come from the individual himself. Toyota also helps, guide and provides opportunities to its employees. MOTIVATION Motivation is a feeling of satisfaction and commitment towards its goals and objectives. This is an internal psychological state which determines the action of the person. Employees are motivated via different ways .It is important for Toyota to give much attention to the needs of its employees and keep moving in the desire direction. Toyota enhances its employees motivation through two basic ways: Financial Non-financial Financial motivators Toyotas financial motivators are connected to the monetary need of the employees which includes salary system, bonuses, and allowances etc. which have usually short term effect on the employees. Base salary: A person is paid a salary for the job he/she is doing in a specific time. In Toyota, persons basic salary depends upon his knowledge, skills, qualification and competencies of the employee. Basic salary should be compatible with the job. It is required for the Toyota to give the compatible salary to its employees which keep them motivated and committed. Variable pay Sometimes Toyota gives incentives to employees to enhance or improve the performance of the employees focusing on the specific targets or projects. Financial rewards provide financial recognition to people. Extra money is given to the employee for their achievements. Benefits are also given to the employees for their well being which includes contribution to pension fund, health insurance schemes, life insurance, loan with no interest or lower interest rate, free use of products or services of the company, etc. Allowances for relocation, transportation, subsistence, accommodation, recreation, etc      Non-financial motivation techniques The most important technological changes which are used by the Toyota to motivate its employees include non-financial motivation techniques. These non- financial motivators are very effective it cost nothing to the Toyota but depend on the willingness of pertinent managers to pay more attention to their staff. These non financial motivators are connected to the work itself and having a longer term effect. Non financial motivators are honors, self respect, Change Management perspective of Toyota HRMS Change Management as it seems made up of two words Change plus Management. Change means to transform while management means the art of controlling, leading, organizing and decision making. So apparently change management means the art of controlling, leading, organization and decision making in the transformation process (J Dawkins, 2007) More precisely, in the context of Toyota Motor, we can define change management as systematic methodology of changing the individuals, teams and organizations from current state to the desired state. This change may or may not include all the employees of an organization. In the case Development of new system was very crucial for Toyota Motor. Company was using old system but new computerized system was needed. And Toyota was facing problems in changing the old system due to its employees behavior (Chaffey D, 2004) Change Management process Change Management process includes the Toyota context, pace and scale of change, people management, change management content plan page and implementation of plan In Toyotas Context In Toyota Motor company, management decided to change its old manual accounting system with new computerized system. Toyota Company needed the new computerized system for the following reason: Toyota Motor wanted to increase its efficiency in doing business and also wanted to gain competitive advantage over its competitor. For the development of new system company took the services of the other organization (J Dawkins, 2007) The new system was after the stage of successful testing was almost complete and the only problem for Toyota was the implementation because its workers who were resisting this new change they were thinking that after the development of the new system they will have problem to use it and they have to made major adjustment even layoffs are expected as a result of new system in reality company was predicting for the growth they were planning for product development and wanted to add new models and staff for managing this growth (Ayse Saka, 2003). After this implementation of new system lots of employees of Toyota was thinking about the early retirement. Pace and Scale of Change in Toyota Motor Company In pace and scale of change business needs to know that how many people are affected with the development of the new system. For this organization can choose different ways that how they will know about these affected employees because this new system had been used by the same people there was very high cost attached with the new system so Toyota Motor needed to know exactly about the number of people who are affected and how often they had to change their attitudes and behavior. Toyota should know the time period in which the old system will be replaced by the new computerized system (Joel Oleson, 2009) For this change Toyota needs a sponsor and best person fits to this role are senior and as well as influential personality of the Toyota. This was the first step for the Toyota to identify the sponsor next step was to identify champions and change agent who will bring this new change system in the organization. People Management in Toyota In the new system development process at Toyota the most complicated stage in the process was people management. This is the most difficult process of development of new system. Because people are the final user for this new system in this case Toyota was facing some challenges as their employees were not favoring the new system due to some future doubts e.g. they were feeling their selves insecure that this new system will be harm for them (Joel Oleson, 2009) It will not in the benefit of them. There are so many ways organization can manage this issue of contradiction (Ayse Saka, 2003). First it is the responsibility of the Toyotas management to tell about the change to its employees who will be affected by this new system. They should be aware of about this system before its starting so, then these hurdles do not exist. Now proper coaching is required for the employees who will use this new system. They should be trained and learned to use new system. Toyota should communicate new systems benefits and new opportunities which will arise due to implementation of the new system to the employees like presentations, road shows; team briefing and regular meeting of the senior employee would be called and arranged for the employees. Toyotas Change Management Plan Contents Page Change management is a very difficult process that demands a proper step by step process for the change in a firm or organization. It has been often found that employees resist to the change management process a lot. Same as the case of Toyota Motor which wanted to implement a change within the organization and was facing resistance from his employees. Change management plan contents page includes: Initial Knowledge Implementation Plan of Toyota Initial Knowledge For Toyota initial knowledge is called as the foundation to the change process. Toyota Motor believes, when they have a strong introduction to your change requirements, they can have a first impact on the stakeholders who may be the cause of the resistance to the change. The more impressive the introduction to the problem and the change need, you have the most chances of the success in the change management (Ayse Saka, 2003). An introduction is the part of the change process in which you introduce the objectives, needs, rules and policies and deliver change effectiveness. Implementation Plan of Toyota For Toyota Implementation plan in the change process works as the milestones towards Toyotas destination. In the plan first Toyota management sets its milestones so that they may not lose their track from the change process. Plan has a significant importance (Chaffey D, 2004) .It helps the people, technology, process, and the change implementers like Toyota Motor Company define the service, reduce ambiguity in the change process and it also help to mitigate conflicts within the firm where change needs to be implemented. Communication Whenever a change is required, the change management team is required to seek, produce and properly communicate the evidences to Toyotas management in support to the change. Taking employees in confidence has a great importance for Toyota, as the change is mostly not implemented due to the resistance from the employees (Helen Taylor, Cary L. Cooper, 1998) .And to get their support, it is widely required the good communications of the evidences to the support of change. Because if the employees will understand the benefits and reasons behind change, they will respond positively. Implementation plan includes: Readiness measurement By Toyota Involvement of employees Training Readiness measurement by Toyota Along with the strong communication, Toyota Motor also measures the readiness to use the change in the daily operations. If the staff will see it more ambiguous and difficult to implement, they will deny accepting change as it will not be secure to them. It may harm their performance that will impact on their jobs too. The experts in new system may replace them. So they will never accept the change. But if they find the system is easy to use and change, then most staff will embrace changes for the long term security. Involvement of employees Keeping the involvement of the staff and employees in the change process is also an important step for Toyota. If you keep their opinion and suggestions in the changing process, you may face very less probability of the resistance from them. It will give them an affiliation with the change process (Helen Taylor, Cary L. Cooper, 1998). They will consider the success of the change as their success. Keeping them aware and involve also keep them aware what is going on so that there would be less chances of negative words of mouth and rumors. Training The new systems and the changing should have training sessions for the employees who are use to the older systems and the business environment. The training sessions should be conducted by Toyota so that it may reduce the resistance, to increase efficiency and to avoid any risk in the stoppage of the production, jammed processes or other factors related to the less knowledge for the new systems (Chaffey D, 2004). Innovation to Management Styles of the Toyota HRMS Different management styles are used in Toyota to manage its workforce. These styles are dependent on the on various factors e.g. culture of Toyota, nature of the task, skills, qualification of the employees, nature of the leaders (Kotter, J. and Schlesinger, L. 2003). Style of leader depends on all these factors and after analyzing appropriate style is employed. Sometimes different styles are used at same time to control the situation. Different Management Styles Normally there are three management styles which are followed by the different organizations including Toyota which are Autocratic Democratic Lassie Faire Autocratic In Toyotas Autocratic style employees involvement is minimal or not taken. No information is shared with the employees. Rules are set and then tell employees to follow them. All the objectives and goals are set by the Toyota top management. The communication flow is from up to downward from top level to low level. The advantage of this style is that objectives and goal remain constant. These type of leaders make unilateral decision and always keep an eye on subordinates whether they are doing the right things. In this style subordinates have no control on any thing and they just need to follow leader (Kotter, J. and Schlesinger, L. 2003). The disadvantage of this style is that employees are dissatisfied and which cause the reason of turnovers, absenteeism and low productivity. Democratic In Toyotas Democratic style, employees input are taken in the planning and decision making process. Employees are motivated and encourage participating in the affairs of the Toyota. In this style every issues and problems are solved with the consent of the majority. The communication flow is both way upward to downward and vice versa. Democratic style is more often used at Toyota when the problem is complex and need everyone input. There are some advantages and disadvantages of this style. Employees are more satisfied with their job and turnover rate is low and productivity is high. Disadvantages may include to get everyone consensus is difficult. This style is time consuming because it takes time to get the input from others. Laissez-faire In Toyotas Laissez-faire leadership style, leader gives free hand to employees or a group or team and asked for the end result. Toyotas leader does not set any rules and regulations. Toyotas employees set the rules and objectives according to their need. Leader role is very nominal in this style. The communication style is horizontal in this style (Kotter, J. and Schlesinger, L. 2003). This style is not very common in the so many organizations including Toyota but still used when management feels its need. There are also some disadvantages for this style, lack of staff focus, no clear hierarchy, poor company image and less dissatisfaction of customers How to manage Toyota Human Resource? Toyota motor company has also adopted the different management techniques for keeping its employees competitive, satisfied and to solve all the potential problems related to its HRMS. These different techniques are: Job rotation Job Enrichment Involving employees Communication Management by walking around Employee driven innovation Maintain a knowledge sharing network Job rotation In Toyota job rotation is the newly concept and it is effective as well. The process of moving employees among different jobs is job rotation. Job rotation helps employees to improve their skills, Knowledge and competencies. Employees get bored by doing the repetitive task every time so job rotation is a good way to keep them active and fresh every time (Jeffrey H. Dyer and Kentaro Nobeoka, 2000). Job rotation also helpful for the Toyota itself in the time of crisis, if an employee is unavailable due to the any reason other employee can do its work Job enrichment: Toyota Motor Company knows intrinsic factors in a job such as achievement, responsibility and growth need the job enrichment. With job enrichment employees are more likely to be satisfied with the job and motivated to perform it. Combining tasks takes existing and fractionalized tasks and puts them together and form a larger module of work. Forming natural work units tasks and employee does create an identifiable and meaningful whole. Establishing client relationship increases the direct relationship with the clients. Expanding jobs vertically gives employee more responsibilities and control (Jeffrey H. Dyer and Kentaro Nobeoka, 2000). Opening feedback channel lets employees knows how well they are performing their jobs whether performance have improved or not or remain constant. Involving employees Take input from the employees to increase their commitment is important for the success of the Toyota. The extent to which decisions affect the employees and Toyota should involve the employees. By increasing their autonomy and control over their work lives, employees will become more motivated, more committed to the organization, more productive and more satisfied with their jobs. Communication Keep informing the employees about the goals and direction of the Toyota. Communicate all the related issues regarding employee future, job and performance. Each and every matter which Toyota can share to the employee should communicate them. Every thing which affects the employees itself also communicated to them. Management by walking around: Visit to the Toyotas offices, factories, workshops, and labs regularly, always asking the employees about their work and work related problems, sort out the problems and giving them feedback etc.    Employee Driven Innovation Toyota believes in collection of key ideas and uses the experiences of most of the employees to create opportunities and new ways for them. It is important to bring incremental changes in culture of Toyota, products, behavior, processes, and in business models that create value for customers, stakeholders and the company. Maintain Knowledge sharing network It is necessary for organization to maintain knowledge sharing network that will help in quick knowledge diffusion than other competing manufactures. Due to the best knowledge sharing network organization can gain competitive advantage on other competitors. Knowledge sharing system made organization effective and capable to do any thing with in no time. This knowledge sharing network includes organizations employees, suppliers, management and all the related stakeholders. This network improves the productivity and reduced the delivery time. This knowledge sharing network of will solve three basic problems: Motivate and encourage members involvement and share their valuable ideas Reduce cost of doing business Prevent free Riders Conclusion Studies have proved that organizational success is affected by the innovative management styles. These management styles are vary from every organization to another organization. There are different managing styles which all used to manage employees. Management styles can bring success and innovation in the organization but the most important thing is that management style should be suitable for the organization Satisfied and committed employees are asset for the Toyota. It has seen organization with more satisfied employees perform better than other whose are not satisfied. So, Toyotas success or failure also depends on its employees satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Organization whose employees are dissatisfied with their jobs cost too much to the organization. The Change Management Could arises from several many situations and could be applied in several many kinds. Actually the type of problem or situation decides why and how to change. The successful implementation of change depends on the human capital that an organization possesses and also on the measures adopted to implement change. The main objective of organizational change is to bring about a strategic change in its organizational structure to better utilize its human and non-human resources to efficiently achieve organizational goal. Recommendations Effective and Timely Change Management is the secret of success of Toyota. But for effective change, Toyota needs to plan the design, sequence and implementation of change proactively. Satisfied and committed employees are asset for the Toyota. It has seen organization with more satisfied employees perform better than other whose are not satisfied. So, it is vital for Toyota to maintain a healthy relationship with its employees in order to become competitive. Today world is changing very quickly so Toyota should change and up grade its self with the modern standards and technologies. Toyota should welcome any key idea by the any employee. Self recognition, self esteem and honors are also very important for the employees so, Toyota should more emphasis on these non financial motivators and keeps its employees as most satisfied and happy.

The Medias Influence on Teenage Suicide Essay -- Teenage Suicide Essa

The Media's Influence on Teenage Suicide   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Fiction: Only â€Å"bad† kids who have the wrong friends and bad lives commit suicide. Fact: Kids who have the right friends and a bright future in front of them commit suicide. Fiction: Music, movies, and other forms of media do not influence teenagers in any way, shape, or form. Fact: Music, movies, and other forms of media are influencing teenagers to commit suicide.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Teenage suicide is on the rise at an alarming rate. While depression and other social pressures play a significant role in suicide among teenagers, there is evidence showing that music, movies, and other ways the media portrays suicide as glamorous and noble is having a major influence on teenagers considering suicide.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Every year more than 4,000 teenagers between the ages of 15 and 24 commit suicide and another 400,000 attempt suicide; the number of suicides may be even higher because many suicides are hidden by families who report the suicides as accidents or murders (Klagsburn 16). â€Å"Suicide now ranks as the third leading cause of death among people ages 15 to 24, trailing only accidents and homicides†(Worsnop 371). Over the past four decades, teenage suicide rose a staggering 200 percent (Waters 49). â€Å"Of all the suicides studied among people under 25, nearly two-thirds of them were committed with guns, teenagers who committed suicide by hanging themselves ranked second, and poisoning ranked third† (Colburn 5.)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many warning signs of suicide. A teenager contemplating suicide will drop numerous clues before attempting suicide. Such warning signs as withdrawal from the family, changes in eating and sleeping habits, as well as loss of interest in schoolwork or favorite activities, such as participation in athletics. Some teenagers express a preoccupation with pain, death, or suicide. They often talk of death and make actual threats to end their life. Many teenagers will drop verbal clues such as: â€Å"I might as well be dead,† or â€Å"you’ll be sorry when I’m gone.† (Goldstein, 55.) A preparation for death may take place, for instance, giving away prized possessions (Worsnop, 372-73). In some cases, the most ominous sign of suicidal intent is the sudden onset of apparent peace of mind after a long period of troubling behavior. Such a mood change may indicate the person has finally resolved to commit suicide and thus h... ...of Violent Entertainment. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Hutchings, David. â€Å"I Started Thinking about Dying.† People. February 18, 1985: 88-89. Keller, Julia. â€Å"Too Regular Shootings Have Left Many Numb.† Chicago Tribune.1 Aug 1999. Klagsburn, Francine. Too Young to Die. Boston: Houghton  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mifflin, 1976. Newton, David E. Violence and the Media: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara: Instructional Horizons, 1996. Pond, Steve. â€Å"Student Body Count.† Rolling Stone. April 1989: 38. Royal Commission on Violence in the Communications Industry. Volume 1: Approaches, Conclusions, and Recommendations. Toronto: The Royal Commission on Violence in the communications Industry, 1976. â€Å"TV Suicide Link: Fatal Retraction.† Science News.October, 1987: 218. â€Å"Suicide Belt.† Time. September 1, 1980: 56. Trafford, Abigail. â€Å"Death at an Early Age.† The Washington Post. June 6, 1995: 6. Waters, Harry, et al. â€Å"Teenage Suicide: One Act Not to Follow.† Newsweek. April 18, 1994: 49. Worsnop, Richard L. â€Å"Teenage Suicide.† CQ Researcher 1.6   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (June 6, 1991): 371-91. Zirkel, Perry A. â€Å"Another Case of Student Suicide.† Phi Delta Kappa. 77 (Sept. 1995): 91-94.

An Education Lasts a Lifetime

Education is a key element in developing the skills necessary for a successful life. Too often students are more involved earning a paycheck than spending time on their academic studies. Students need to realize that their highschool classes will prepare them for a brighter future. A highschool student’s time is very limited. Homework and extra curricular activities are time consuming and if a student adds a job into this busy schedule, less time is devoted to their academic studies. The effects of this could be recieving lower grades or not taking challenging courses. A job would also limit the amount of time a teenager has for social activities and sports, thereby causing a withdrawal from friends and the highschool community. The job environment is not always beneficial to the student. In most cases the wages are low and the hours are long. Sometimes employers can be very demanding and schedules are not flexible. The skills being used may not be beneficial in furthering their career, and they might become comfortable with the paycheck and not strive to reach their full potential. Money is the root of many problems associated with teenagers. A paycheck gives a student the power to purchase many commodities including cars, clothing and electronics. They may also be exposed to drugs and alcohol. Students are being introduced to a new environment and the challenge of managing their money comes into play. Teenagers already have enough pressures and stress in their lives and they may find it difficult to juggle academics along with their work schedule. High school is a time of growth both mentally and physically. Students should focus their attention on their studies so they can one day achieve their dreams.

Curricular theory and theorists Essay

The word curriculum has its origins in the running/chariot tracks of Greece. It was, literally, a course. In Latin curriculum was a racing chariot; currere was to run. A useful starting point for us here might be the definition offered by John Kerr and taken up by Vic Kelly in his standard work on the subject. Kerr defines curriculum as, ‘All the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside the school. [1] This gives us some basis to move on. For the moment all we need to do is highlight two of the key features: Learning is planned and guided. We have to specify in advance what we are seeking to achieve and how we are to go about it. The definition refers to schooling. We should recognize that our current appreciation of curriculum theory and practice emerged in the school and in relation to other schooling ideas such as subject and lesson. In what follows we are going to look at four ways of approaching curriculum theory and practice: Curriculum as a body of knowledge to be transmitted. Curriculum as an attempt to achieve certain ends in students – product. Curriculum as process. Curriculum as praxis. Curriculum as a body of knowledge to be transmitted Many people still equate a curriculum with a syllabus. Syllabus, naturally, originates from the Greek. Basically it means a concise statement or table of the heads of a discourse, the contents of a treatise, the subjects of a series of lectures. In the form that many of us will have been familiar with it is connected with courses leading to examinations. For example, when teachers talk of the syllabus associated with, say, the Cambridge GSCE exam. What we can see in such documents is a series of headings with some additional notes which set out the areas that may be examined. A syllabus will not generally indicate the relative importance of its topics or the order in which they are to be studied. Those who compile a syllabus tend to follow the traditional textbook approach of an ‘order of contents’, or a pattern prescribed by a ‘logical’ approach to the subject, or the shape of a university course in which they may have participated. Thus, an approach to curriculum theory and practice which focuses on syllabus is only really concerned with content. Curriculum is a body of knowledge-content and/or subjects. Education in this sense is the process by which these are transmitted or ‘delivered’ to students by the most effective methods that can be devised [3]. Where people still equate curriculum with a syllabus they are likely to limit their planning to a consideration of the content or the body of knowledge that they wish to transmit. ‘It is also because this view of curriculum has been adopted that many teachers in primary schools, have regarded issues of curriculum as of no concern to them, since they have not regarded their task as being to transmit bodies of knowledge in this manner’. Curriculum as product The dominant modes of describing and managing education are today couched in the productive form. Education is most often seen as a technical exercise. Objectives are set, a plan drawn up, and then applied, and the outcomes (products) measured. In the late 1980s and the 1990s many of the debates about the National Curriculum for schools did not so much concern how the curriculum was thought about as to what its objectives and content might be. It is the work of two American writers Franklin Bobbitt, 1928 and Ralph W. Tyler, 1949 that dominate theory and practice within this tradition. In The Curriculum Bobbitt writes as follows: The central theory is simple. Human life, however varied, consists in the performance of specific activities. Education that prepares for life is one that prepares definitely and adequately for these specific activities. However numerous and diverse they may be for any social class they can be discovered. This requires only that one go out into the world of affairs and discover the particulars of which their affairs consist. These will show the abilities, attitudes, habits, appreciations and forms of knowledge that men need. These will be the objectives of the curriculum. They will be numerous, definite and particularized. The curriculum will then be that series of experiences which children and youth must have by way of obtaining those objectives. This way of thinking about curriculum theory and practice was heavily influenced by the development of management thinking and practice. The rise of ‘scientific management’ is often associated with the name of its main advocate F. W. Taylor. Basically what he proposed was greater division of labor with jobs being simplified; an extension of managerial control over all elements of the workplace; and cost accounting based on systematic time-and-motion study. All three elements were involved in this conception of curriculum theory and practice. For example, one of the attractions of this approach to curriculum theory was that it involved detailed attention to what people needed to know in order to work, live their lives and so on. A familiar, and more restricted, example of this approach can be found in many training programs, where particular tasks or jobs have been analyzed and broken down into their component elements and lists of competencies drawn up. In other words, the curriculum was not to be the result of ‘armchair speculation’ but the product of systematic study. Bobbitt’s work and theory met with mixed responses. As it stands it is a technical exercise. However, it wasn’t criticisms such as this which initially limited the impact of such curriculum theory in the late 1920s and 1930s. Rather, the growing influence of ‘progressive’, child-centred approaches shifted the ground to more romantic notions of education. Bobbitt’s long lists of objectives and his emphasis on order and structure hardly sat comfortably with such forms. The Progressive movement lost much of its momentum in the late 1940s in the United States and from that period the work of Ralph W. Tyler, in particular, has made a lasting impression on curriculum theory and practice. He shared Bobbitt’s emphasis on rationality and relative simplicity. His theory was based on four fundamental questions: 1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? 2. What educational experience can be provided that is likely to attain these purposes? 3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? 4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? Like Bobbitt he also placed an emphasis on the formulation of behavioural objectives. Since the real purpose of education is not to have the instructor perform certain activities but to bring about significant changes in the students’ pattern of behaviour, it becomes important to recognize that any statements of objectives of the school should be a statement of changes to take place in the students. We can see how these concerns translate into an ordered procedure and is very similar to the technical or productive thinking steps set out below. 1. Diagnosis of need 2. Formulation of objectives 3. Selection of content 4. Organization of content 5. Selection of learning experiences.